|
Knowledge is a product of the processes of thought,
but there has been
little understanding of the way in which the subjective mind achieves
knowledge. The Western philosophical tradition has seen the processes of the
mind to be logical, but this approach has always been fraught with problems
and the Postmodernists have, on good grounds, denied its validity. Karl
Popper has suggested that knowledge is produced by certain psychological
processes. The understanding of these processes of the mind is fundamental
to any theory of knowledge.
The nature of the human mind has been the subject of long-running
philosophical disputes. Materialists see the mind as a state of matter. For
them the "brain" and the "mind" are different ways of
looking at the same entity. Rene Descartes is credited with the first
statement, within the Western tradition, of the separate natures of mind and
matter, and Karl Popper has more recently restated the theory.
In this epistemological project the investigation of the human mind is
pursued independently of the brain. Compatibility with Cognitive Psychology
is maintained by an approach based on the study of observable behaviour.
This is supplemented by the study of experience. Experience gives the
problems and behaviour represents the response. The mental actions that
relate the problems and the behavioural solutions may be inferred, where
inference is a problem solving activity. Speech is an observable behaviour
and the individual's explanation of his understanding of particular
experience and his reasons for selecting particular behaviours in response
to the experience are valid and valuable evidences to support the
inferences.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Hume's Empirical Approach
Psychology and subjective epistemology have a common interest in the
functioning of the human psyche. The interest of subjective epistemology is
limited to the question of how knowledge is achieved. David Hume (1711-1776)
proposed to investigate the nature of mental processes to discover how the
intellect reached knowledge. This was to be carried out using the
experimental method employed so successfully in physics by Isaac Newton. The
study would result in a "science of man" which would be the only
solid foundation for all other sciences. Hume's own investigation of mental
entities and processes has been heavily criticised and is now discredited.
Hume's programme is taken up, with the substitution of scientific
methodology for Hume's method of reasoning. Hume's epistemological project,
as amended, is a scientific investigation of how experience is processed
within the human intellect to produce knowledge. The investigation of the
human mind is broken down into more basic studies concerned with how the
problems of experience are reduced to knowledge, how this knowledge is
retained, more or less permanently, by the individual, and how retained
knowledge is deployed to deal with the reality of experience. These
questions are discussed in the three parts of this section. The results of
the studies provide the foundation for a scientific theory of epistemology.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Thinking is Problem Solving Behaviour
Mental behaviour is usually called thinking.
Thinking is often associated
by psychologists with problem solving. In successful thinking the individual
moves from the awareness of a problem to the achievement of the solution.
Problems occur in the experience of the individual. The form for problem
solving is given by:-
PROBLEM OF EXPERIENCE---> THINKING---> SOLUTION
The solution determines the mental and physical behaviours of the individual
with regard to the problem. Mental and physical behaviours are parts of the
same behavioural program.
The form is:-
PROBLEM---> SOLUTION--->
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL BEHAVIOURS
Further experience tells the individual if
those behaviours were successful and therefore appropriate. Inappropriate
and unsuccessful behaviours bring the validity of the thinking process into
question.
To successfully manipulate reality to achieve specific ends the
behaviours must be correct. To achieve correct behaviours the individual
must understand reality through the careful observation and analysis of
experience. The thinking process that leads to the solution must be based on
a valid problem solving method that takes all relevant experience into
consideration. The correct solution to the problem of experience is called
knowledge.
The form is then:-
PROBLEM OF EXPERIENCE---> PROBLEM SOLVING
METHOD---> KNOWLEDGE---> CORRECT BEHAVIOURS
Knowledge is therefore the
consequence of the correct execution of the problem solving method applied
to the problems of experience.
Top
Experience
and Knowledge of Reality
Part One
THE PROBLEMS OF EXPERIENCE
The study of subjective knowledge is concerned with how individuals gain
knowledge. Human beings come into the world understanding almost nothing and
yet within a short period of time every child has acquired some
understanding of its environment and by the end of its life may be very
knowledgeable indeed. The process by which the intellect develops is based
on experience. The world of experience exhibits order and this order may be
learned through observation. Everyday living and experiencing in the world
leads to understanding.
The worlds of the Inuit, the Somali herdsman, the Polynesian fisherman,
and the New Yorker, all seem so radically different that their experiences
may appear to have little in common. However, the basic experiences of human
beings do not differ. All human beings learn the rudiments of space and
time, they learn how to analyse their environments, and to use a general
purpose language to communicate information about their world. They learn to
recognise people, human relationships and the conventions of social
behaviour. They learn the explanations given by their cultures for the
existence of people in the world, and the history of their own group which
gives them their identity. The technology of the modern world is a
superstructure built upon this basic set of experiences.
The unit of experience is the problem. New experience is not understood
simply by observation but occupies that intermediate area between the known
and the unknown. It is recognised intellectually as new experience but has
not been assimilated into the class of experiences which are understood. It
therefore constitutes a problem to the individual intellect. The problems of
experience beset human beings throughout their lives. The living of each day
brings its quota of new problems. The solving of problems has the benefit
that the individual gains solutions in the form of understandings. Knowledge
is the true understanding of the problem of experience, and the behaviour,
both mental and physical, that follows from knowledge is that most likely to
achieve the objectives of the individual.
Top
Experience
and Knowledge of Reality
The Problems of Experience
Chapter One
THE THEORY OF EXPERIENCE
The point of departure is Aquinas's argument that knowledge starts with
experience. St.Thomas took the senses and sense impressions to be the
starting point for knowledge. From the point of view of the conscious
intellect there is no awareness of sensory data or of any category of events
of experience such that those data or events can be distinguished from
understanding. St.Thomas recognised that raw sense data was not the stuff of
thought and proposed a psychological process whereby sense data became
understandable in itself and then intelligible to the intellect as a part of
the understanding of reality.
The conscious intellect can deal only with understandings and experience
of reality always takes the form of understanding within the intellect.
Individuals either understand the events of experience or they understand
that they have a problem of understanding an experience in a way that would
allow them respond with correct behaviours, both mental and physical. The
set of understandings may therefore be divided into two subsets which are:-
1. understandings of the existence of problems of experience, and
2.
understandings of solutions to problems of experience.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Classes of Experience
Human experience
covers all sensory, aesthetic, feeling, emotional,
intellectual, moral and spiritual events which appear to intellects. Perceptions of the physical world appear to the intellect as understandings
related to its model of physical reality. Physical feelings represent
emotional reactions to perceived physical events and are intellectual rather
than physical in origin. Emotions such as love, happiness, fear, and
depression may be triggered by external events but their expression lies in
the spiritual nucleus of the human entity. All these forms of experience
appear as intellectual experience. Individuals understand that they are
experiencing physical, emotional, and spiritual events but their real
experience is one of understanding. Pain, as an experience, is non-existent
to the unconscious intellect since it is not understood. It is meaningful
only to the conscious understanding.
Analysis of experience in the intellect reveals differences which allow
classification. Experience may be arranged into five classes:-
1. Physical
experience is the earliest and commonest form met with by the human
intellect.
2. Cultural experience in the forms of social training and
education are part of a child's upbringing and the culture forms the medium
for human interaction.
3. Moral experience, in the forms of behavioural
training and the learning of respect for others, is also an early factor in
intellectual development. Morality is a first consideration in dealings with
other people.
4. Religious or spiritual experience is met with in childhood
but its depth and quality are the result of study in later years.
5.
Intellectual or ideal experience is superficial in most intellects, and is
mainly the province of philosophers, psychologists, and theologians. The
world of ideas may be seen as one of the components of the understanding of
human nature.
Events of experience may have multiple subunderstandings within the
intellect. The visual experience of a victim of murder may give rise to a
simple biological understanding that a life process has ceased due to a
certain cause. Seen against a normative model of individual human life it
may be understood as a premature and unnecessary termination of a valuable
life process. Viewed from a model of social order it may be understood as a
contravention of law. Looked at as a reconstruction of the events of the
termination of the life it may give rise to emotional reactions of horror,
outrage, and anger. Seen as an event affecting family and friends it may be
understood as a permanent loss and a matter for grief and sorrow. Upon moral
reflection it may be seen as an evil. All experiences are not understood in
the same ways by all individuals.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Reality as the Source of Experience
The human individual has only a set of experiences to work with.
Treating
these experiences as problems he arrives at the solutions to those problems
which are understandings of the experiences. Reality is the explanation for
the origin of experience. Since he has experiences of physical,
intellectual, spiritual, moral, and social events, he may come, through the
problem solving method, into understandings of the realities which gave rise
to those experiences. Reality is therefore more than the physical
environment.
The cultural subreality is explained as the set of objective knowledge,
both formal and informal, and theoretical and applied, resulting from the
solutions of problems common to all members of a group. Ideal reality is the
reality of the rationalist tradition, as described by Rene Descartes. There
are few responsible individuals who would deny the fact of morality. Moral
experience is a consequence of living a life and moral considerations are
primary in all behavioural decision making. The moral universe has been
recognised from antiquity and Confucius defined his understanding of it
several hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era. Moral
experience translates to moral knowledge when processed by normal problem
solving methods. Religion recognises and explains the supernatural reality
and the relationship of humanity to this reality.
Scientific epistemological theory sees five subdivisions of reality,
adding to the physical subreality, the universe of intellects and thought,
the human created reality which is the culture, the moral universe, and
religious reality. Each of these subrealities, or natural environments, is
valid in that true knowledge of them can be obtained by the correct
application of the methods of knowledge.
These five subrealities account for the totality of human experience.
They form parts of a more fundamental reality which links the universe of
experience with the ultimate or supernatural. Knowledge is the correct
understanding of any part of the five subdivisions of reality, and of the
total or fundamental reality.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Top
Experience
and Knowledge of Reality
The Problems of Experience
Chapter
Two
PROBLEM THEORY
Cultures as Sets of Problem Solutions
The relationship
between experience, problems, the culture and the set of
intellects is given by the thesis is that experience gives rise to problems,
and the set of solutions to the problems of experience is what is called the
culture. The label of culture may be applied both to the problem solutions
of the group and to those of individuals. Here the word
"intellect" is used to refer to the set of individual solutions,
reserving the word "culture" to its group meaning.
Problems have their origin in the human situation of living as a group on
a small planet in a three-dimensional universe. Some problems are common to
mankind; others to groups in particular geographical regions. The problems
that are common to the group give rise to common purposes and objectives,
and from there to common solutions. These solutions constitute group
understandings and the set of common solutions forms the culture.
The culture, in the form of particular solutions to particular problems,
is taught to the young as the subject matter of education. The cultural
solutions to problems, in the forms of objective knowledge and paradigms of
behaviour, give the student intellect greater understanding of reality and
enhanced power to achieve purposes.
Not all group problems have ready-made solutions. Those cultural problems
which have not been solved as yet, or not solved satisfactorily, must be
solved at the level of the individual intellect. These problems are reduced
to understanding by the use of a valid problem solving procedure and may
later be incorporated into the set of objective knowledge.
For any intellect experience may be direct or interpreted through
cultural conventions. Conventionally interpreted experience is filtered by
education within a culture and is subject to conventional problem
understandings and solutions. While the individual is free to reject
cultural interpretations of experience and cultural solutions to the
problems of experience there must be some significant motivation to do so.
Commonly such interpretations are rejected on the grounds of alleged
immorality.
There is a class of problems which are peculiar to people as individuals.
They have no group equivalent and therefore no culturally normal solution.
These subjective problems are also solved using a valid problem solving
method, and the solutions are annexed to the intellect as subjective
knowledge.
Personal experience is of two sorts. The first sort includes all those
events of experience which the individual has met before, and which
therefore he understands and can respond to with appropriate mental and
physical behavioural sequences. The second includes all those events of
experience which are new to the individual and therefore constitute
problems. These problems are to be solved and thereby understood, and then
to be responded to behaviourally in an appropriate way. The intellect in
dealing with problems of experience achieves new and enhanced
understandings.
People approach experience purposefully, seeing the events of experience
as relevant or irrelevant to their objectives. The behaviours that are
expressed in response to purpose-relevant experience have the aim of
furthering those objectives. The variety of human purposes falls under one
of two headings which are survival and self-fulfilment. The problems
selected by the individual for solution are real problems. Real problems are
those which bar the progress of the individual intellect towards the
achievement of its purposes, and which the solution, as intellectual and
physical behaviour, will overcome. While experience follows the observation
of reality, problems of experience are a feature of cultures, both of the
individual and the group, and not of reality itself. A problem arises only
when the correct understanding and behaviours for dealing with reality are
unknown.
Problems of experience fall into the categories given by the natural
environments. A group culture or individual intellect, which has no purposes
that fall within a given environment, cannot have a real problem within that
segment of reality. A primitive culture has problems of survival and its
primary environment is the physical. Its interest in other divisions of
reality is minimal. A rational culture has problems of truth and morality
and must extend its interest into the ideal and moral environments.
At the subjective level the individual may or may not have understandings
within every category of reality. Where there is understanding within a
category there will also be a philosophy. The philosophy may see something
of interest and significance within the category and the intellect may
evolve a purpose, for example, to find out more. Conversely, the category
may be viewed by the philosophy as non-significant and the individual may
seek to promote this view as a purpose. For example, morality or religion
may be little understood by an individual who may have no interest in those
categories. He may reject any claims with regard to them and this behaviour
is consistent with his experience and understanding, although it will be
contradicted by those with knowledge in these categories.
Although problems may be commonly regarded as undesirable, intellectual
problems are, by and large, beneficial. Problems are the means of
intellectual development. The intellect reacts to the problems posed by
experience which are the indicators of inadequacy of understanding.
Understanding develops by the solution of problems which cease to exist when
the intellect extends itself to include their solutions. The growth of
individual intellects therefore proceeds from problems and the successful
projects to solve them.
An obvious value of problems lies in cases of error of understanding. It
is the sign of errors of understanding that anomalies will arise in
consequence of attempts to act according to those understandings. Anomalies
fall outside normal understanding and constitute problems. They are
therefore the safeguard against the persistence of human error. The presence
of problems of ignorance and error motivate changes in the understanding
through creative problem-solving. As the understanding changes, so the
appearance of reality and the quality of experience change.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Problems are Violations of Models of
Reality
The individual
analyses his experience and makes distinctions.
These are
related logically into a model of the segment of reality that he is
observing. Where David Hume saw only "bundles of impressions"
there are in fact logically structured models of reality. The individual may
describe aspects of reality when not actually observing them by referring to
his internal models.
The model of reality describes a natural subset of the field of
experience in such a way that rules may be derived. These rules are
predictive, and the ability to predict, to some extent, the processes of
reality constitutes, in part, the individual's understanding of it. The
operation of the individual intellect in any segment of the field of
experience is based on what his model tells him, and the rules that govern
its operation. Models enable the individual to interface with his
environment in a way that permits him to influence that environment in the
direction of his objectives. The extension of this is that the individual
bases all behaviour on what his model of reality tells him is the case. It
follows that if the model of reality is inadequate or wrong the consequences
of behaviours based upon it are unlikely to be successful. The successful
achievement of human objectives requires the detailed and accurate modelling
of the set of environments.
All trained people have mental models and behavioural procedures which
support their work, and they view their problems in the light of the
understandings given by these models. For example, a physician in making a
diagnosis, will call to mind mental models of the human body, and of its
parts and systems, and models of the malfunctions to which the body is
liable. The problem is first defined by the symptoms described by the
patient. The doctor endeavours to match the symptoms with the known symptoms
of the various ailments, as given by the models. Where possible matches are
found behavioural routines are operated to test for other confirmatory
symptoms. The use of stethoscopes is a behaviour long associated with
doctors. This is the problem investigation stage, which may proceed through
a set of tests to eliminate all but the real cause. The model of the real
problem, as learned in medical training, specifies those behaviours
available to the physician to assist in the cure of his patient.
Problems are recognised as such because they violate the expectations of
the intellect. The understanding either allows an event of experience as a
normal type requiring a selection from a predetermined range of behaviours,
both mental and physical, or it disallows the event as non-processable
intellectually. The inbuilt model of reality is then incapable of predicting
the origins and consequences of the event of experience. The nature of the
problem is determined by the individual's subjective philosophical
understanding, and constitutes a puzzle or counter-instance to the model of
reality on which that philosophical understanding is based. The recognition
of problems is related to the degree of sophistication of the model of
reality. The more advanced intellect sees a greater variety of problems of
greater complexity.
When models of reality fail there is a need for judgment regarding the
nature of the cause. The model is in some way inadequate to its purpose. The
problem may be minor and may be overcome by a modification of the model. On
the other hand, a major change may have occurred in the environment making
the model of reality and the understanding that explains it, obsolete. If
problems must be solved, the individual's understanding of what constitutes
a problem solving process must be invoked and applied.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Understanding is formed by Problem
solving
All knowledge disciplines are dependent for new knowledge on advances in
subjective knowledge. All theorists and research workers are faced with
problems in their work, and they must solve these problems correctly. This
is true whether the knowledge worker is a philosopher, theologian, or
scientist. The problems are recognised as such in light of the models of the
field of knowledge. A worker with no models of the field of study is not
qualified to engage in knowledge development. For example, a linguist
working on the problems of language, will have, as a minimum, models of the
structures and application rules for one or more general purpose languages.
In addition, he will have models of the various problems under
investigation. Typically, if the problem is how languages are learned, the
investigator will have a number of case studies, each modelling a particular
state of affairs in the field of language-learning. The task is then to
reduce the study models to one general model which explains the problem.
This is achieved through the application of a problem solving method.
Problems are solved every day by everybody. Most problem solving is
intuitive and informal but this does not prevent successful solutions. In
important and complex matters the individual will attempt to structure the
problem as best he can, as a basis for rational working. Problem
investigation and analysis involves behaviour aimed at the better
understanding of the problem as the precursor to problem solution and the
determination of the best course of action. Better understanding follows
from a more detailed model of the problem.
The areas where the problem of formal problem solving can be studied are
science and technology, education and business. A survey of these areas will
show that failures to reach correct solutions may be ascribed to errors like
not understanding the reality in which the problem reveals itself, trying to
solve the wrong problem, trying to solve a problem that was not properly
understood, making assumptions which are not valid, and failing to test
intermediate conclusions as well as end solutions. For example, a failure to
understand the realities of the stock market may be the cause of financial
losses which are seen as a problem. Ignorance of true reality implies that
problem solving is carried out in a universe of illusions and the resulting
"solutions" will have unpredictable consequences in the real
world. A valid problem solving method will require procedures that will
effectively prevent these errors. A valid problem solving method gives true
solutions to real problems.
There is a problem solving method which, if carefully applied, will
always give true solutions to the problems of the intellect. This method is
based on the investigation of the problem, the achievement of problem
understanding, and the requisitioning of the solution. The process of
development of understanding commences with the real problems of the field
of study and ends with the production of the solution in the form of an
understanding, the formula being:-
PROBLEM...> PROBLEM-SOLVING
METHOD...> SOLUTION
A complete and correct understanding of the problem is necessary to
correct problem solving. This is achieved by careful execution of the
problem solving method. The solution of problems involves a learning process
in which the investigator's understanding of the problem is continually
widened and deepened. New ideas emerge in the individual intellect as a
result of the probing of the problem, and the consideration of the
experiences that follow. Problem-Solution theory shows how a problem is
structured and carried to a solution, which is new understanding. The
omission of any stage of the problem investigation reduces the problem
solver's ability to understand the problem. If all the stages are omitted
the problem-solver can only resort to that pseudo problem-solving process
usually associated with armchair philosophy, opinion and other forms of
non-factual speculation.
The result of the problem solving process is both an understanding of the
problem solution and a new or modified model of reality. Better
understandings are achieved through better models and the continual need to
improve understanding results in increasing depth of environmental
modelling. Models are subject to continual improvement in interaction with
the flow of experience. Problems lie outside the horizon of understanding
given by the existing set of models of reality and the aim of the intellect
is to solve them and to assimilate their solutions into an existing more
general model, or failing that, to include the new problem solution as an
addition to the set or library of particular understandings. The set of
understandings available to the intellect develops in range and power with
each correct solution to problems of experience.
The problem solving method is also the self-programming method and
produces those procedures which are executed as intellectual and physical
behaviour. These procedures form behavioural programs which are based on
models of reality. The solution to a real problem, based on a model of
reality and amounting to an executable procedure or program, is called an
understanding. As an understanding it is annexed to the database of
understandings which is the intellect.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Top
Experience
and Knowledge of Reality
The Problems of Experience
Chapter Three
THE PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD
The intellect solves problems and, in thereby gaining knowledge, extends
its power to deal with experience. There is a valid method for the solving
of problems, which, if it is applied rigorously, will result in the
development of knowledge. The problems of objective knowledge are solved at
the subjective level and the problem solving method discussed here is
applicable to both subjective and objective problem solving.
Problems should be distinguished from puzzles, as defined by Thomas Kuhn.
The general solution model for a puzzle is already known. For example, the
multiplication of 9975 x 93 is a puzzle for most individuals since they
already know how to solve it. However, the multiplication would constitute a
problem for an individual who has not learned a multiplication method.
Education allows the individual to move directly from the understanding of
the problem to the understanding of the solution, but the problem must
always be understood first. All knowledge is produced, in the first
instance, by the problem solving method.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Solving of Problems
The method for solving problems consists of a number of stages which
are:-
*
Problem Determination:
Problem detection
Problem identification
*
Problem Understanding:
Problem investigation
Problem analysis
Problem
definition
*
Solution Formation:
Solution specification
Solution creation
Solution recognition
In the real world the individual is rarely conscious of passing through
specific stages of problem solving. However, no rational individual would
consider himself as being in a position to attempt a solution without first
being assured that his understanding of the problem was correct and
complete. Each stage of the problem solving method is necessary to the full
understanding of the problem.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Stages of the
Problem-solving Method
Problem detection
At some point an individual becomes aware of the possible existence of a
problem. Generally some understanding is being violated. The awareness that
a problem may exist may start simply as a feeling that something is wrong.
Scanning of the events of experience may detect signals indicating problems.
For example a bank employee may notice unusual customer credit card account
activity. This may be perfectly legitimate but enquiries would need to be
made to ensure that the credit card was not being misused. The outcome of
the problem detection stage is confirmation that a problem exists.
Problem Identification
The awareness of the existence of a possible problem or problems does not
necessarily include the ability to isolate the correct problem. The right
problem needs to be identified. A prerequisite for identifying problems is a
model or understanding of the overall situation in which the problem can
reveal itself. A problem is only a problem when it runs counter to our
expectations as given in our model of reality. Without such a model it is
impossible to recognise the occurrence or nature of a problem. At the
subjective level the model is supplied by the intellect. The intellect
either understands the event of experience or it does not. Where failure to
understand occurs a problem exists.
For example, the awareness that a patient has a high temperature does not
identify the problem, but is only a symptom or signal of the problem. Two
understandings are necessary here; the first to recognise the symptom as
indicating a possible problem, and the second to tie the symptom to its
cause. The first understanding is a common one; the second may require
medical training. Medical knowledge supplies models of reality from which a
diagnosis may be possible. Even for trained people identifying the real
problem may require an investigation. The first attempts to identify the
problem may all be wrong. Even the final identification of the problem may
be incorrect. People are often aware of problems without being able to say
exactly what the problem is, and a problem may stand unidentified
indefinitely.
It is a form of error to treat a symptom of a problem as the real
problem. In a business situation treating falling sales volumes, or rising
production costs as problems may fail to get to an effective solution if the
real problem is obsolescent products or out-of-date production facilities.
Problem situations may be over-determined; this is to say, there is more
than one factor or problem causing the problem situation. Solving only one
of a set of contributory problems, if that is possible, rarely produces a
valid or satisfactory solution.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Process of Understanding the
Problem
Once the problem has been correctly identified the next stage is to
understand it. This involves the stages of investigation, analysis, and
definition.
Problem Investigation
The task of understanding the problem involves finding out everything
about the problem that is relevant to its appearance in experience. The
investigation of problems involves a learning process in which the
investigator's understanding of the problem is continually expanded and
deepened.
The nature of the problem determines the investigation methods. In
general, the scientific approach which involves breaking the problem down
into manageable units is usually fruitful, providing the problem can later
be reconstituted through a method of integration. For example, an
investigation of an ailing commercial undertaking may be broken down into
investigations of the various departments of the company, all of which may
show symptoms of problems. An attempt to solve the many departmental
problems would be the wrong approach if the true problem is the bad
management of the enterprise as a whole.
Problem Analysis
The factors that have a bearing on the problem must be understood in a
way relevant to the purpose and objectives being pursued so that a valid
structured problem definition may be formed in the understanding. The
problem analysis results from insights formed during the investigation,
although not necessarily prompted by any particular part of the
investigation. It is aided by previous experience in dealing with similar
problems. The problem structure may be logical, mathematical, or both. This
model explains the occurrence of the problem in experience. For example, a
mechanical problem may be traced to metal fatigue. The problem analysis
shows how this fatigue occurs after a period of use.
Problem Definition
In the problem definition the problem solver sets out his understanding
of the problem based on his problem model, and supported by the evidences
obtained in the problem investigation. If this definition is correct the
problem is now completely understood. The writing of the problem definition
has the twin advantages of improving the precision of the problem solver's
understanding, and improving the accuracy of the problem definition through
the opportunity it gives for criticism.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Solution Stage
In the solution stage the problem understanding is replaced by the
solution understanding. The descriptions of the entities and processes
involved in the problem situation have been produced by the problem
investigation and definition phase. The problem is understood in terms of
the old understanding of reality, but cannot be assimilated into that model.
This follows from the definition of a problem. The requirement now is to
understand them in a way that overcomes the problem. A new model of reality
is therefore required to explain both the old understanding and the problem.
This understanding is supplied by the solution.
Solution Specification
From the problem definition the problem-solver moves to a position of
forming an understanding of what would count as a solution to the problem.
The problem definition is a statement of fact and the solution specification
is a question based on that statement. The solution specification sets out
that which one wants to know, and is the bridge between the understanding of
the problem and the solution. It establishes the criteria by which the
solution is evaluated. Without the solution specification it is impossible
to say if the solution answers the problem.
The meanings of the problem definition and the solution specification, as
stages in the solution of a problem, are determined solely by the
problem-solver's intellect. The solution specification is formed by the
individual in furthering his purposes and constitutes a definition of an
objective which is the achievement of the solution. The solution
specification therefore imports the philosophy of the individual into the
problem solving process. Different philosophies, based on opinions and
ideologies, will interpret the same problem definition in different ways and
will ask different questions. The problem of social poverty can be
well-defined by researchers and generally agreed, but the solution
specification and solution may be very different for different individuals.
As the intellect is commonly inadequate, and to some degree confused and
erroneous, the interpretation of the specification may be less than perfect.
For example, all solution specifications in which the nature of Time is of
the essence are not likely to be absolutely correct. The nature of Time is
one of the least understood areas of physics. Solution specifications which
employ the term "God", where that term has a substantial meaning
within the intellect, are likely to result in an answer, all other things
being equal. Where no meaning of any worth can be attached to the term
within the intellect, the solution, if there is one, is likely to be
confusing and even erroneous. The individual has to know what he is talking
about. Given that the solution specification is valid a solution will be
returned.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Relationship of Solution Specification
to Solution
A specification is not a definition. The solution specification describes
the conditions that the new understanding must satisfy. It may be compared
to a specification of a new house which is no more that a page of
requirements, where the definition is the set of plans produced by an
architect. The relationship between the meaning of the specification and the
meaning of the solution is exact in the same way that an arithmetic equation
is exact. The solution is precisely limited by the specification. On the
other hand, a carefully considered solution specification may be almost
open-ended in its knowledge requirements and may produce a solution which
exceeds the boundaries of the problem. A solution specification which
grossly exceeds the problem definition may produce a solution which cannot
be tied back to the reality of known problems of experience, and being
untestable against a known problem, may have an unknown truth status.
If the solution specification is badly drawn up so that it cannot be
reduced to a valid meaning or understanding, no solution will follow. This
is often the explanation for prolonged struggles to solve particular
problems. As an example, the solution specification might require a solution
to a problem of subnuclear physics, in terms of Newtonian mechanical
concepts. The requirement could not be met and the result is that the
transformation of the solution specification to a solution is aborted
without a result. Generally failures to reach solutions are either the
consequence of inadequate understandings of elements of the problem, or the
insistence of the researcher that the solution must conform to some existing
theory or ideological understanding when that is impossible.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Emergence of the Solution
The solutions to problems are found within the intellect at some time
subsequent to the process of problem solving. The appearance of a solution
is an event of experience and is followed by the understanding of that
solution. The act of understanding the solution happens when an individual
says, "now I understand". The "I" grasps and assents to
the new understanding. The understanding is annexed as an improvement to, or
extension of, the intellect.
Problems may be particular or general, and solutions are likewise
specific or generic. General solutions may be in the form of prototypes. An
arithmetic problem requires a specific solution. The law governing the
behaviour of bodies subjected to gravitational force is a prototypical
solution in which certain variables are unknown. For the solution to be
useful it must be related to a specific problem of a real body existing in
physical reality by a set of informational data.
All class constructions are prototypical and are made specific by
information. The term "body" may be applied to wide variety of
objects. Prototypes may be related to virtual realities. A reality in which
there are no impressing forces is virtual, and represents a rational
construction for a purpose. An unspecified body free of impressed forces is
a prototype existing in a virtual reality.
A representative problem taken together with a protypical solution is a
model solution and amounts to a paradigm in Kuhnian terminology. Paradigms
are not separated from real world states of affairs. As described by Kuhn,
scientists articulate paradigms into other problem areas by abstracting the
paradigm's prototypical model and reapplying it to the new problem.
Prototypical solutions give the intellect the power to solve a range of
problems. The problem solving method defined above is, itself, a
prototypical solution.
The new solution or understanding, being new, is different from any
understanding already incorporated into the problem understanding or
solution specification. The new solution imports a new model of reality into
the intellect. Where the new model replaces an older one the difference may
be described in Kuhnian terms as a transformation of reality, where such
transformations may be minor as well as major. The model of reality which
was the basis of the problem understanding has changed in a manner that the
problem no longer exists in its original form. The intellect which has
annexed the new understanding may think of the problem area in an altogether
different way.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Expert Understanding
Once the problem solution method has been operated the problem-solver may
then understand the general problem area or field of study. He may then ask
supplementary questions, based on his understanding of the field. There may
be no need to research the problem field over again even when new problems
arise.
The formula then becomes
NEW PROBLEM...> NEW SOLUTION
SPECIFICATION...> EXTENDED SOLUTION
where each new solution broadens and
deepens the understanding of the expert in that field. For example, a
problem in the field of Economics may be new but its origins and probable
consequences may be determined from an existing understanding of the field.
The expert may correctly describe it and prescribe relevant and probably
effective behaviours to deal with it without further empirical study. The
problem in this case is, in Kuhnian terms, a puzzle, for which a
prototypical solution or paradigm already exists in the intellect of the
problem solver.
Specialists in any field who find they can arrive at solutions to
problems without the necessity of applying any formal problem solving method
may tend to think that they do not use a method, and that, therefore,
methods are unnecessary. An attempt to solve a problem in an unfamiliar
field would quickly prove the necessity of method.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
Intuitive Problem solving
The stages of problem solving do not require consciously formal
execution. Problems may be solved at the intuitive level by passing through
the same stages as above. These stages may be seen as puzzlement, problem
recognition, growth of problem understanding, questioning, and then
solution. Intuitive problem solving is a common human activity applied to
the myriad of problems that human beings overcome in the course of their
lives. It is the method of problem solving used by infants in the first
stages of building their intellects and it is simple and easy to apply. But
problems which are correctly solved are always solved by the methodology
defined above, whether formal or intuitive.
Complex problems may be solved either intuitively or formally, but
generally the more complex the problem the more the formal method is likely
to be successful compared with the intuitive. The solutions to the problems
of objective knowledge have to face criticism and a record of the
progression from problem identification through to solution is valuable
evidence of truth. Problems in the field of knowledge should always be
solved formally.
The problem solving method given above is the only road to new knowledge.
This has always been the case for human knowledge and yet there is ample
evidence of error and confusion in intellects and in the culture. The
explanation is that the method has either been ignored or carelessly or
cynically applied. The result is the generation of opinions and ideologies
which masquerade as knowledge.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Problem Solving Method and the
Scientific Method
Objective knowledge is a development of subjective knowledge. In a
situation where there are competing candidates for the status of objective
knowledge some procedure must exist to determine the best theory. This
procedure is science. Science lays down conditions that must be satisfied by
all acceptable candidates for objective knowledge status. There is a
relationship between the general problem solving method and the scientific
method such that the latter is a more rigorously enforced case of the
general method. Science is, therefore, the objective equivalent of the
subjective way of reaching knowledge.
◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
◊
The Source of Problem Solutions
The problem definition and solution specification are transformed by the
problem solving method into the new understanding or solution. The new
solution is found in the intellect at some time subsequent to the attempt to
solve the problem. The description of the psychological process in which the
new understanding is created, in response to its requisition in the form of
the solution specification, is given in the next section.
|